Gallaudet University Laurent Clerc National Deaf Education Center Where Does Speech Fit In? Spoken English in a Bilingual Context Factors Involved in Spoken English Development

About the Author Is He Still Talking? Factors Involved in Spoken English Development Sign vs. Speech Realistic Expectations Using Bilingual Strategies Conclusion References Sharing Ideas Home Page

There is no such thing as a homogeneous group of deaf or hard of hearing children. Each child's ability to develop spoken English skills is influenced by a variety of factors. In my opinion there are two major prerequisites: biological potential and an intrinsic motivation or interest. Factors related to potential and motivation for a deaf or hard of hearing child can be broken down into several specific areas. These areas include: amount of residual hearing, benefit of amplification, consistency of hearing aid use, language competency, family support, intelligence, and attitude-both of the child and of the family. Each of these factors (discussed below) plays a complex, interrelated role in the overall development of spoken English skills. No one factor determines the extent to which a deaf or hard of hearing child will develop intelligible spoken English skills. However, factors related to the degree of access the child has to the spoken English model are the most important. Children with limited access to the auditory part of speech and who are unable to use their hearing to monitor their own speech production have a truly challenging task ahead of them. While there are exceptions, those children with less auditory access to English tend to be less likely to develop functional spoken English skills. While I consider the child's level of interest or motivation to be a separate factor, this variable is often influenced by the degree of access to auditory information, as that access makes the spoken language more engaging and meaningful. However, all things being equal from an access perspective, level of interest is a very real factor that can greatly affect a child's ability to develop spoken English skills-a factor that can be encouraged, but not forced. An analogy I use with parents is that of sports or music. If you have an interest in soccer or the piano, you may want your child to develop skills in these areas also. However, a child who has no natural ability or interest is not likely to develop significant skills. This is not to say that the child should not be encouraged to participate in sports or music, but that it should be done by exposing the child to the skill and encouraging regular but enjoyable practice, then letting the child's own aptitudes and interest determine to what extent this area of interest can realistically be fostered. Of course, many hearing parents' desire for their child to speak, and their hope for their child to interact easily with the hearing majority cannot be compared to their desire for the child to succeed in a sport. However, there are some very real parallels when looking at the child's intrinsic motivation to learn to speak. Amount of Residual Hearing The acuity of a child's hearing can be objectively measured and documented on an audiogram. However, when discussing auditory skills, it is important to note that an audiogram often does not reflect a child's functional abilities (Cramer and Erber, 1974). The audiogram provides information about how well a child can hear "pure tones." It does not indicate how well a child comprehends spoken language within or outside a communicative context. I have seen children with severe losses have more success with spoken English than children with moderate losses. (The exact reasons for this difference have not been documented but clearly seem related to the complex of factors discussed here.) Amplification Each child responds differently to amplification. A child's use of hearing aids may or may not provide enough benefit to allow full or even partial access to spoken English. For many children, hearing loss does not just weaken the auditory signal, it distorts sound as well (Plomp, 1978). To use an analogy, hearing aid use can be compared to a radio. Hearing aids can increase the volume of speech the child is hearing. However, if the incoming signal is full of "static"-in this case, distortion due to damage to the cochlea or auditory nerve-then the hearing aid may have little benefit. A student once told me, with more than a hint of sarcasm, that he liked his new FM system because it made the "buzzing" much louder. Hearing aids can provide more auditory information by increasing the volume, but they do not necessarily increase comprehension of spoken English. Cochlear implants provide auditory information by directly stimulating the cochlea. Although they may increase awareness of sound, their success rate in contributing to developing oral language skills has been minimal in children who had not already learned spoken English before their hearing loss (Crouch, 1997). It is critical to carefully consider all factors when contemplating irreversible attempts to amplify sound, such as implants. In the final analysis, it is important to observe a child's behavior to determine how much benefit he or she is receiving from any form of amplification. It may be safe to assume that consistent use of amplification in meaningful settings for a child who demonstrates benefit from amplification is likely to have impact on his or her spoken English development. Language Competency One critical factor in speech development is language competency. For a deaf or hard of hearing child who has a solid base in ASL, spoken English development becomes an easier task. Deaf children of deaf parents often demonstrate a significant linguistic advantage in spoken English over deaf children of hearing parents (Geers & Schick, 1988). The deaf or hard of hearing child who already understands the world and is fully able to communicate his or her thoughts is more able and willing to learn the skills necessary to develop spoken language skills. In addition, recent research (Strong & Prinz, 1997; Israelite, Hoffmeister, & Ewoldt, 1992) has demonstrated a correlation between ASL competency and English literacy. A deaf or hard of hearing child's knowledge of written English can be a valuable tool for developing competence in spoken English. As a deaf or hard of hearing child begins to read, he or she is able to make the connection between the printed and the spoken word, especially if the speech pathologist practices listening and speaking skills with stories or sentences that have meaning for the child while still modeling English structure. This visual reinforcement is very helpful for teaching the sound combinations in new vocabulary. Written English also provides a way for deaf and hard of hearing children to gain complete access to the structure of the language, providing a clearer model of English syntax than they are likely to get from the spoken signal. Knowing the structure of English is particularly important in speechreading, which involves filling in many gaps by predicting or guessing what cannot be heard or perceived on the lips. Therefore, the early literacy skills that develop when written stories are translated into ASL can also help to reinforce speech skills. Family Support Family support is vital not only for speech and language development but for emotional and cognitive development. A family that accepts their deaf or hard of hearing child and respects the child's visual and linguistic needs will help that child reach his or her maximum potential (Henderson & Hendershott, 1991). It has been my experience that if a child senses family support, interest, and acceptance in all areas, then he or she is more willing and able to tackle the often difficult task of learning spoken English skills. Children who experience this level of acceptance from their families tend to develop a more flexible and open approach to the communication process, rather than the sense of pressure or resentment that can develop when the entire focus seems to be on speech development. Given broad-based support and encouragement, children seem more likely to develop the underlying confidence necessary to become successful communicators. Such children are better equipped to negotiate difficult interactions that may require them to use trial and error in applying a variety of communication strategies. Intelligence Level A child's intelligence level alone is not a good indicator of ability to develop spoken English. Many intelligent deaf and hard of hearing adults do not develop spoken English skills, despite intense efforts. However, a child with aptitude in certain areas of intelligence may be able to make more sense of the distorted speech he or she perceives or may have greater ability to utilize other contextual cues in the environment. Young children are naturally inquisitive, and those whose language and cognitive development are supported early tend to view speech as just another interesting thing to learn. Over time, their understanding of the goals and their level of motivation may increase as they begin to see the potential applications in their later lives. Sharing Ideas Home Page Contact Ken Kurlychek with comments or suggestions about this web page. Last modified May 4, 1998 Copyright © 1997 All Rights Reserved Laurent Clerc National Deaf Education Center Gallaudet University 800 Florida Ave. NE Washington, DC 20002-3695